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Recent scientific research has introduced a groundbreaking tool for understanding one of the most powerful forces in addiction: craving. The Craving Assessment Scale for Behavioural Addictions and Substance-use Disorders (CASBAS) represents a significant advancement in how we measure and comprehend the intense desires that characterise addictive patterns.
What Is Craving Assessment and Why Does It Matter?
Craving is defined as an intense, subjective experience of desire—an overwhelming urge to use a substance or engage in a specific behaviour. This phenomenon sits at the heart of addiction, affecting everything from initial substance use to the likelihood of relapse after treatment.
Understanding craving is crucial because it plays both a symptomatic and mechanistic role in addiction development. Research demonstrates that craving intensity can predict:
- How likely someone is to engage in addictive behaviours
- Difficulties in controlling substance use or behavioural patterns
- Treatment outcomes and recovery success
- Risk of relapse during recovery attempts
The Three Faces of Craving Assessment
The CASBAS identifies three distinct types of craving experiences, each with different underlying motivations:
- Reward Craving
This type involves seeking positive feelings and stimulation. People experiencing reward craving are driven by the desire for pleasurable sensations and the positive reinforcement that comes from engaging in the behaviour or using the substance.
- Relief Craving
Relief craving centres on escaping negative feelings. Individuals seek to reduce tension, stress, or discomfort through their addictive behaviour. This form of craving often increases during periods of heightened stress or anxiety.
- Urgency
Characterised by intrusive, repetitive thoughts, urgency represents the obsessive component of craving. Those experiencing high urgency feel they cannot think about anything else and struggle with impaired functioning due to their intense desire.
Why Standardised Craving Assessment Transforms Research
Previously, researchers faced significant challenges because different tools measured craving differently across various substances and behaviours. This inconsistency made it difficult to compare findings or understand craving as a universal phenomenon in addiction.
The CASBAS addresses this gap by using the same six questions across eight different addictive patterns, including gaming, gambling, shopping, social media use, and substance use involving alcohol, cannabis, and nicotine. This standardisation allows researchers to identify common mechanisms whilst respecting the unique characteristics of different addictive behaviours.
Understanding Craving Changes Over Time
One particularly valuable finding shows that craving is not constant—it fluctuates based on situations and exposures. Research using the CASBAS demonstrated that craving levels:
- Decrease during neutral activities
- Increase significantly when people imagine engaging in their specific addictive behaviour
- Respond to environmental cues and triggers
This understanding has important implications. If craving is situational and changeable, interventions can be developed to help people manage these intense urges when they arise.
The Role of Mental Imagery in Craving Assessment
Interestingly, research revealed that mental imagery abilities play a significant role in craving intensity. When people vividly imagine engaging in an addictive behaviour, their craving levels rise substantially. This finding aligns with psychological theories suggesting that mental imagery is a precondition for forming subjective states of desire.
This insight opens possibilities for intervention strategies that address how people think about and imagine their addictive behaviours.
Looking Forward: Applications for Prevention
The development of reliable craving assessment tools represents progress in understanding addiction mechanisms. By identifying different craving types and their triggers, researchers can better understand the pathways that lead from initial experimentation to problematic patterns.
For young people and families, understanding that craving involves distinct psychological processes—seeking reward, avoiding discomfort, and experiencing urgency—provides a framework for recognising early warning signs. The transient nature of craving also offers hope: these intense feelings pass, and with appropriate strategies, they can be managed.
As research continues using standardised tools like the CASBAS, we move closer to comprehensive understanding of how addictive patterns develop and, crucially, how they might be prevented before they take hold. (Source: WRD News)
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The Psychedelic Syndicate: How Silicon Valley Used Veterans to Hijack the Psychedelic Industry
Excerpt from Executive Summary
This report provides an in-depth examination of how a strategic, well-funded campaign operated to influence public perception at the expense of public health.
Psymposia has spent over a year investigating the financial and political forces shaping the psychedelic industry. Through analysis of hundreds of internal documents — including unedited emails, transcripts, presentations, and other primary materials spanning nearly a decade — this report describes the rise of the Psychedelic Science Funders Collaborative (PSFC) and its extensive influence across the field.
The prevailing media narrative has characterized the psychedelic movement as an organic coalition of grassroots activists motivated by psychedelics’ therapeutic potential. Our analysis reveals PSFC's coordinated efforts to circumvent federal regulatory structures and manipulate state-level policy development, transforming a community-led movement into a vehicle for centralized corporate influence.
Following the FDA’s 2024 rejection of MDMA-assisted therapy, PSFC-funded organizations targeted critics and whistleblowers in collaboration with the Psychedelic Communications Hub (now incorporated into the Psychedelic Safety Institute). Organizations involved in this campaign included the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), Lykos Therapeutics, and veterans groups Heroic Hearts Project and Healing Breakthrough.
Having failed to subvert the FDA regulatory process, these groups are now appealing to the Trump administration to accelerate approval based on data from clinical trials characterized by serious scientific failures. Disregarding public safety concerns in their rush to bring an experimental therapy to market, PSFC responded to the FDA's rejection by intensifying strategies that would amount to regulatory capture.
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Originating in the US, Communities that Care is a public health prevention framework that has been operating in Australia for 25 years.
Over 30 Local Government Areas have used the framework to reduce alcohol consumption, injuries and crime. In the US it has been used to also reduce smoking, cannabis and depression. An Australian cost benefit analysis has shown that using the CTC approach to adolescent alcohol consumption has a return of investment of $2.60.
This presentation outlines the Communities that Care model and how communities can use the model. It also presents findings from the National Australian Cluster Randomised Control Trial, and other national and international longitudinal evidence. (Watch Webinar Here)
Also see
- Why Prevention Matters and to Whom
- AOD Primary Prevention & Demand Reduction Priority Primer
- Asia-Pacific Prevention Hearing 2024 – The Declaration of Oviedo
- Prevention Basics! #Prevention #Childfirst What Adults Need to Know — One Choice Prevention
- Protective Factor Number One in Drug Use Prevention Science
- Prevention & Demand Reduction: Denying or Delaying Substance Use in Communities – An Evidence-Based Best Practice Guide'
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New research reveals that four specific personality traits can predict who will develop addiction problems – and more importantly, how targeted addiction prevention strategies can stop substance abuse before it begins. A groundbreaking Canadian programme demonstrates that personalised intervention works far better than traditional warning-based approaches.
The PreVenture Breakthrough
Canadian clinical psychologist Patricia Conrod has developed addiction prevention strategies that focus on personality rather than substances. Her PreVenture programme, implemented across Canadian classrooms, teaches students about their own psychological traits instead of simply warning about drug dangers.
“When you intervene around these traits and help people learn new cognitive behavioural strategies to manage these traits, you are able to reduce their substance use,” said Conrod, professor at the Université de Montréal.
This personalised approach to substance abuse prevention represents a fundamental shift from reactive to predictive intervention, targeting vulnerability before addiction develops.
Four Critical Risk Traits
PreVenture identifies four personality traits that predict addiction risk with remarkable specificity. These traits don’t just indicate general vulnerability – they reveal exactly which substances individuals gravitate towards, enabling precise addiction prevention strategies.
Anxiety sensitivity affects people who feel overwhelmed by physical symptoms like racing hearts or dizziness. This trait typically leads to alcohol, benzodiazepines, or opioid use as individuals seek to calm their bodies.
Sensation seeking characterises those craving excitement and novel experiences. These individuals often turn to cannabis, MDMA, psilocybin, or other hallucinogens. “Cannabis alters their perceptual experiences, and so makes things feel more novel,” Conrod explained. This trait also correlates with binge drinking and stimulant use.
Impulsivity involves difficulty controlling urges and delaying gratification. People with this trait struggle with response inhibition, making substance abuse prevention particularly crucial. “Young people with attentional problems and a core difficulty with response inhibition have a hard time putting a stop on a behaviour once they’ve initiated it,” noted Conrod.
Hopelessness reflects pessimistic, self-critical thinking patterns. Individuals with this trait expect rejection and assume hostility from others, often using alcohol or opioids to numb emotional pain. Conrod describes this as “negative attributional style” – believing the world is hostile and requiring protection.
Targeted Intervention Approaches
Unlike generic drug education programmes, effective addiction prevention strategies must address individual personality profiles. PreVenture uses brief personality assessments to identify dominant traits, then delivers specific cognitive-behavioural techniques.
Students learn how their traits influence automatic thinking patterns and develop healthier responses. Those with hopelessness learn to challenge depressive thoughts, whilst sensation seekers explore safer stimulation methods. Anxiety sensitivity receives calming techniques, and impulsivity training focuses on pausing before acting.
Crucially, successful substance abuse prevention acknowledges trait strengths alongside risks. “We try to present traits in a more positive way, not just a negative way,” said Sherry Stewart, clinical psychologist at Dalhousie University. “Your personality gets you into trouble – certainly, we discuss that – but also, what are the strengths of your personality?”
Genetic Foundations
Research increasingly reveals genetic underpinnings for addiction vulnerability, supporting personality-based addiction prevention strategies. Catherine Brownstein, Harvard Medical School professor and geneticist, explains that personality traits have substantial genetic components.
Her research identified 47 DNA locations affecting brain development and personality traits. Whilst genetic addiction prediction remains impossible, certain variants link to psychiatric disorders often co-occurring with substance abuse, including ADHD and schizophrenia.
Genetic variations also influence pain perception, with some variants increasing sensitivity whilst others eliminate it entirely. The SCN9A gene may make individuals more likely to seek opioid relief. “If you’re in pain all the time, you want it to stop, and opioids are effective,” Brownstein noted.
Future substance abuse prevention may combine genetic screening with psychological profiling for even more personalised interventions.
Proven Effectiveness
Evidence strongly supports personality-targeted addiction prevention strategies. A five-year study published in January showed students participating in PreVenture workshops were 23 to 80 per cent less likely to develop substance use disorders by Grade 11.
The programme has expanded across age groups. PreVenture targets middle and high school students, UniVenture addresses university students, and OpiVenture helps adults in opioid treatment. Implementation spans schools across the US and Canada, including British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador.
Current Challenges
Despite proven effectiveness, personality-based substance abuse prevention remains underutilised. Canada’s flagship youth prevention strategy still follows the 1990s Icelandic Prevention Model, focusing on environmental factors rather than individual psychology.
Whilst the Icelandic model showed success in Iceland, it lacks mental health components, doesn’t address opioid use specifically, and demonstrates mixed gender results. Traditional addiction prevention strategies often default to ineffective generic approaches like one-off guest speakers.
Conrod cites staffing shortages, school burnout, and insufficient mental health services as implementation barriers. However, momentum builds as British Columbia aligns prevention services with PreVenture principles, and organisations like Foundry BC and Youth Wellness Hubs Ontario expand programme reach.
The Personal Connection
The programme’s power lies in helping young people feel understood rather than lectured. Effective addiction prevention strategies create space for individuals to recognise their unique traits and understand they’re not alone.
“It’s really important that a young person is provided with the space and focus to recognise what’s unique about their particular trait,” Conrod emphasised. “Recognise that there are other people in the world that also think this way – you’re not going crazy.”
This understanding transforms substance abuse prevention from fear-based messaging to empowering self-awareness, offering young people tools to manage their psychological vulnerabilities before they become dependencies. (Source: WRD News)
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The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime’s World Drug Report 2025 delivers a The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime’s World Drug Report 2025 delivers a sobering wake-up call for Australia’s drug prevention crisis. Meanwhile, whilst policymakers debate harm reduction strategies and law enforcement approaches, the nation is haemorrhaging lives and resources to preventable drug-related harm. Moreover, the data reveals we’re not just losing the war on drugs – we’re actively retreating from the battlefield where victory is most achievable: prevention and recovery.
Furthermore, Australia’s drug prevention crisis has reached critical levels, with our position as a global outlier in drug consumption alarming every parent, educator, and community leader. However, this isn’t just about statistics – it’s about the devastating reality that our current approach is failing the very people we’re meant to protect.
Australia: A Global Leader in Drug Consumption
The World Drug Report 2025 places Australia in an uncomfortable spotlight as a world leader in several disturbing categories. Specifically, against a global backdrop of 316 million people using drugs in 2023 – with cannabis dominating at 244 million users, followed by opioids (61 million), amphetamines (31 million), cocaine (25 million), and “ecstasy” (21 million) – Australia’s consumption rates are alarmingly disproportionate.
Cocaine Crisis: First, Australia holds the unwelcome distinction of having the highest past-year cocaine use globally in the Australia and New Zealand subregion. Nevertheless, the report notes that whilst consumption based on wastewater analysis is “clearly lower than in other parts of the world,” suggesting most users are occasional rather than regular consumers, this pattern actually masks a more insidious problem – widespread experimentation that can rapidly escalate to dependency.
“Ecstasy” Epidemic: Even more concerning is Australia’s status as having “by far the highest” global prevalence of “ecstasy” use worldwide. Indeed, this statistic exemplifies the Australia drug prevention crisis – it represents hundreds of thousands of Australians, many of them young people, exposing themselves to substances with unpredictable purity and potentially fatal consequences.
Cannabis Concerns: Similarly, cannabis use remains “significantly higher than the global average, with prevalence of use exceeding 12 per cent” in Australia and New Zealand. Particularly troubling, amongst school students aged 15-16, the prevalence sits at 13 per cent, compared to the global average of just 4.4 per cent. Additionally, this occurs in a global context where cannabis accounts for 244 million users worldwide – making it the most widely used illicit substance globally.
The Treatment Gap: A System in Crisis
Perhaps most damning is the treatment data. Globally, only 64 million people with drug use disorders received treatment in 2023 – a mere 8.1% of the population needing help, with stark gender disparities (1 in 18 women versus 1 in 7 men accessing treatment). Consequently, against this global treatment crisis, Australia’s specific failures become even more stark.
Importantly, the report reveals that over 40 per cent of those in drug-related treatment in Australia and New Zealand are being treated for methamphetamine use disorder – the highest proportion globally. Furthermore, adding to this concerning picture, Oceania leads the world with 35% of people in drug treatment being women, compared to just 32% in the Americas, 20% in Europe, 13% in Africa, and only 8% in Asia. Therefore, this statistic exposes two critical failures:
- Prevention Failure: Clearly, the sheer volume of people requiring methamphetamine treatment indicates our prevention efforts have been woefully inadequate.
- Recovery Gap: Meanwhile, whilst we’re treating people after they’ve developed severe dependencies, we’re missing countless opportunities for early intervention and prevention.
Subsequently, the report notes that people in drug-related treatment in Australia and New Zealand are “relatively young, in particular in Australia, where 55 per cent are under the age of 35.” Consequently, this demographic should be our biggest red flag – the Australia drug prevention crisis is losing an entire generation to preventable drug harm. Significantly, Australia and New Zealand rank amongst the highest for young people in treatment at 25%, exceeded only by regions facing severe socioeconomic crises like South America (50%) and conflict-affected areas such as the Near and Middle East (35%).
The Methamphetamine Reality Check
The World Drug Report provides a stark assessment of Australia’s methamphetamine situation:
- Whilst “annual methamphetamine use has been decreasing in the general population,” conversely, amongst people who inject drugs, “consumption has become more intensive, causing greater harm.”
- Similarly, New Zealand monitoring programmes have detected “sharply increasing levels of methamphetamine in wastewater, especially in the second half of 2024.”
Ultimately, this data reveals the hollowness of celebrating reduced overall usage when the most vulnerable populations are experiencing intensified harm. Indeed, it’s like celebrating fewer house fires whilst watching the remaining blazes burn hotter and more destructively.
The Pacific Gateway Problem
Australia’s geographic position has made it a magnet for international trafficking networks operating in a global context of unprecedented drug production. Specifically, with global cocaine manufacture reaching a record high of 3,708 tons of pure cocaine in 2023 – a staggering 34% increase from the previous year – Australia has become a prime destination market.
Additionally, the report notes that “the Pacific islands are increasingly targeted as transit points for cocaine and methamphetamine primarily destined for Australia and New Zealand.” Consequently, this means our drug problems aren’t just domestic – we’re becoming a destination market that’s corrupting entire regional trafficking networks, whilst global drug seizures show cocaine (2,275 tons), cannabis herb (5,749 tons), and methamphetamine (482 tons) flooding international markets.
The Criminal Justice Reality
Australia’s drug prevention crisis extends into our criminal justice system, where we’re following global patterns that prioritise punishment over prevention. Specifically, worldwide, 6.1 million people had formal contact with police for drug-related criminal offences in 2023, with approximately two-thirds (66%) involving drug possession or use rather than trafficking.
Furthermore, in Oceania specifically, 73% of people in formal contact with police were there for drug possession/use offences – amongst the highest globally and significantly above the trafficking-focused patterns seen in regions like Africa (32% possession) or Asia (33% possession). Therefore, this data reinforces that our criminal justice response continues to target users rather than addressing the underlying prevention failures that create demand in the first place.
Where We’re Dropping the Ball in Australia’s Drug Prevention Crisis
1. Prevention Investment
Obviously, the Australia drug prevention crisis is fundamentally a resource allocation problem. Although the report doesn’t provide specific prevention spending data for Australia, the treatment statistics tell the story. Clearly, with over 40% of people in treatment dealing with methamphetamine disorders and such high prevalence rates for cocaine and “ecstasy,” our prevention efforts are clearly insufficient.
2. Early Intervention
Similarly, the high percentage of young people in treatment (55% under 35) indicates we’re missing critical intervention windows. Unfortunately, by the time someone enters treatment, prevention has already failed.
3. School-Based Prevention
Particularly concerning, with 13% of Australian school students aged 15-16 using cannabis (triple the global average), our school-based drug education and prevention programmes are demonstrably inadequate. Undoubtedly, this educational failure sits at the heart of Australia’s drug prevention crisis.
4. Community-Based Prevention
Furthermore, the casual acceptance of “ecstasy” use (evidenced by our world-leading consumption rates) suggests community-wide normalisation of drug use that effective prevention programmes should be addressing. Notably, in a global context where only 21 million people used “ecstasy”-type substances in 2023, Australia’s disproportionate consumption indicates a fundamental cultural shift that prevention efforts have failed to address.
The Path Forward: Solving Australia’s Drug Prevention Crisis
Fortunately, the World Drug Report 2025 offers crucial guidance that Australia must heed to address this drug prevention crisis:
Evidence-Based Prevention: Importantly, the report emphasises that “evidence-based prevention programmes at the policy and legislative levels are effective in preventing drug use, as well as many other risky behaviours.” Consequently, to overcome Australia’s drug prevention crisis, the nation needs to dramatically increase investment in these programmes.
Youth-Focused Approaches: Additionally, prevention systems should “support the healthy and safe development of children and youth through family skills, socio-emotional learning and opportunities to lead healthy lifestyles.”
Integrated Healthcare: Furthermore, the report recommends “integrating drug use disorder treatment and care into existing healthcare systems” to improve quality, effectiveness, and efficiency.
Recovery Support: Finally, long-term recovery must be supported through measures that address not just addiction but the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to drug use.
The Cost of Inaction
Undoubtedly, every day we delay implementing comprehensive prevention and recovery programmes, more young Australians will join the statistics in the next World Drug Report. Indeed, the current approach – reactive treatment after severe dependency has developed – is not just more expensive but fundamentally less effective than prevention.
Ultimately, the report’s data on treatment demographics should serve as a final wake-up call: when 55% of people in treatment are under 35, and when we lead the world in “ecstasy” use and rank amongst the highest for cocaine use, we’re not dealing with a fringe problem affecting a small minority. Therefore, Australia’s drug prevention crisis demands mainstream solutions for what has become a mainstream problem.
A Call to Action
Clearly, Australia stands at a crossroads. Essentially, we can continue our current trajectory – leading the world in drug consumption whilst playing catch-up with treatment services – or we can pivot towards the prevention and recovery approaches that the evidence shows actually work.
Obviously, the choice is clear, and the time for action is now. Ultimately, our young people, our communities, and our future depend on getting this right. Moreover, the World Drug Report 2025 has shown us where we stand globally. Therefore, the question is: what are we going to do about it?
Finally, the data doesn’t lie, and neither should we about the urgency of addressing Australia’s drug prevention crisis. Consequently, prevention and recovery aren’t just policy options – they’re moral imperatives for a nation that claims to care about its future. (Source: UNODC)